Verbs

Table of Contents
  1. Verbs of Motion
    1. Tɨŋi
    2. Aŋi
    3. Kiɬi
    4. Duso
    5. Ono
    6. Pɛsi
    7. Evi
    8. Ɛmɛmɛ
  2. Verbs of Stance
    1. Uses of Verbs of Stance

There are a total of twelve verbs in sodemadu. These come in two categories: the verbs of motion, which encode motion along various types of paths, and the verbs of stance, which might arguably be a single verb with multiple suppletive forms which encode the shape or stance of the subject. There are eight basic verbs of motion and four verbs of stance.

All verbs inflect for aspect (imperfect, perfect, iterative) and evidentiality (visual, non-visual, inferred, reported). The verbs of motion deal with a journey. The subject of the verb is the person or thing in motion and on the journey. When expressed, the source can be the point of origin or the impetus for the journey. Likewise, when expressed, the destination is the end-point or goal of the journey. The verbs of stance deal with more static expressions regarding the subject.

The aspectual distinctions in the verbs of motion deal with the state of the journey: imperfective is for an ongoing journey, perfective for a finished journey, and iterative for multiple journeys of the same or similar type. In the verbs of stance they are closer to a more typical tense system: non-past for imperfective, and past for perfective.

The evidential distinctions form a four-way system. These are visual, non-visual/sensory, inferred, and reported. The visual evidential is used for things that the speaker has directly witnessed or experienced. It can also be used for generally known and observable facts, i.e. the things that are certain. The visual evidential, however, is zero-marked. Verbs in subclauses need not take any evidentials, so they are also zero-marked for evidentiality. The non-visual/sensory evidential is used for things the speaker has heard, smelled, tasted, and felt inside, i.e. emotions, thoughts, and physical states like hunger and thirst, heat and cold, and illnesses. It is also used for negative visual evidence. Furthermore, it can be used where the visual evidential would normally be used in order to convey non-volitional actions by the speaker. The inferred is used for things based on sensory evidence, including the sense of touch. It is also used to comment on other people’s mental and physical states. Reported is used for anything else. Specifically, it is for things the speaker knows from hearing it from someone else, learning it from a teacher or a book, or reading it somewhere.

Verbs of Motion

The eight verbs of motion are tɨŋi, aŋi, kiɬi, duso, ono, pɛsi, evi, and ɛmɛmɛ.

Tɨŋi

Tɨŋi is the most basic, being simply "→" and allowing for optional source and a required destination. The optional source, if sessile, is the point of origin or the impetus of the journey. If motile, it is the agent who is sending the subject on the journey.

Tɨŋi can take prefixes to change the valency. E-tɨŋi removes the source, thus putting more emphasis on the destination. It therefore allows for a motile destination, who would be the 'leader' of the subject, the one the subject is following. With mɛh-tɨŋi, the subject is leading the source, and the destination is unimportant and therefore removed. Dan-tɨŋi removes both source and destination, and carries the idea of the subject as going along about its business. Finally, the negative form is vu-tɨŋi. This can negate all the forms of tɨŋi, though using the adverb voya with any form of tɨŋi is always an option.

tɨŋi (S) A → D
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øtɨŋiotnitɨnna
Non-Visual/Sensorytɨmbiombɛtɨmbena
Inferredtɨlliotɨllɛtɨllena
Reportedtɨŋeoŋŋetɨŋena
etɨŋi A → D
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øetɨŋieyotnietɨnna
Non-Visual/Sensoryetɨmbieyombɛetɨmbena
Inferredetɨllioyetɨllɛetɨllena
Reportedetɨŋeeyoŋŋeetɨŋena
mɛttɨŋi (S) A →
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Ømɛttɨŋimɛhotnimɛttɨnna
Non-Visual/Sensorymɛttɨmbimɛhombɛmɛttɨmbena
Inferredmɛttɨlliomɛttɨllɛmɛttɨllena
Reportedmɛttɨŋemɛhoŋŋemɛttɨŋena
dantɨŋi A →
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Ødantɨŋidanotnidantɨnna
Non-Visual/Sensorydantɨmbidanombɛdantɨmbena
Inferreddantɨlliodantɨllɛdantɨllena
Reporteddantɨŋedanoŋŋedantɨŋena
vutɨŋi (S) A !→ (D)
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Øvutɨŋivotnivutɨnna
Non-Visual/Sensoryvutɨmbivombɛvutɨmbena
Inferredvutɨlliovotɨllɛvutɨllena
Reportedvutɨŋevoŋŋevutɨŋena

Aŋi

Aŋi is a variation on tɨŋi where the end-point or goal of the journey is vast or amorphous, and therefore the journey continues within the destination. aŋi is denoted as "→◯" and can be thought of as "go about in". Note that tɨŋi and aŋi have the same forms in the perfect.

Technically, aŋi can take all the prefixes that tɨŋi can, but it doesn't necessarily make logical sense to do so. Aside from the negative vu-aŋi, the most often seen prefixed form is e-aŋi, which carries with it a stronger idea of "going about in" or of "going through" a destination.

aŋi (S) A →◯ D
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øaŋiotnianna
Non-Visual/Sensoryambiombɛambena
Inferredalliotɨllɛallena
Reportedaŋeoŋŋeaŋena
eyaŋi A →◯ D
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øeyaŋieyotnieyanna
Non-Visual/Sensoryeyambieyombɛeyambena
Inferredeyallioŋetɨllɛeyallena
Reportedeyaŋeeyoŋŋeeyaŋena
vaŋi (S) A !→◯ D
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Øvaŋivotnivanna
Non-Visual/Sensoryvambivombɛvambena
Inferredvalliovotɨllɛvallena
Reportedvaŋevoŋŋevaŋena

Kiɬi

With kiɬi, the destination is bypassed or moved beyond. This is denoted as "→̥". The negative form is vu-kiɬi.

kiɬi (S) A →̥ D
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Økiɬikɨttɛkɨlna
Non-Visual/Sensorykɨbliokɨptɛkɨblena
Inferredkɨlliokɨllɛkɨllena
Reportedkiɬeokɨttɛkiɬena
vukiɬi (S) A !→̥ D
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Øvukiɬivukɨttɛvukɨlna
Non-Visual/Sensoryvukɨbliovokɨptɛvukɨblena
Inferredvukɨlliovokɨllɛvukɨllena
Reportedvukiɬeovokɨttɛvukiɬena

Duso

Duso has a basic meaning of to move back and forth between a source and a destination, denoted as "←→". This is the usual metaphor for speech and other two-way interactions. Essentially, the source and destination interact with each other using the subject. Or, the subject goes back and forth between a source and destination. In speech, the source and destination are the participants, and the subject is the speech. With e-duso, the subject is generally a person and the destination a location the person returns to on a cyclical basis. eduso is not normally used for describing speech. mɛh-duso removes the destination, so the source is saying something (the subject), and the audience is assumed or otherwise unimportant. With dan-duso, the subject is something said by someone unexpressed. Finally, the negative is vu-duso.

duso S A ←→ D
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Ødusodustɛdusna
Non-Visual/Sensoryduspiduspɛtɛduspena
Inferreddusliduslɛtɛduslena
Reporteddusuodustɛdusena
eduso A ←→ D
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øedusoedustɛedusna
Non-Visual/Sensoryeduspieduspɛtɛeduspena
Inferrededuslieduslɛtɛeduslena
Reportededusuoŋedustɛedusena
mɛdduso S A ←→
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Ømɛddusomɛddustɛmɛddusna
Non-Visual/Sensorymɛdduspimɛdduspɛtɛmɛdduspena
Inferredmɛdduslimɛdduslɛtɛmɛdduslena
Reportedmɛddusuomɛddustɛmɛddusena
danduso A ←→
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Ødandusodandustɛdandusna
Non-Visual/Sensorydanduspidanduspɛtɛdanduspena
Inferreddanduslidanduslɛtɛdanduslena
Reporteddandusuodandustɛdandusena
vuduso (S) A !←→ (D)
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Øvudusovudustɛvudusna
Non-Visual/Sensoryvuduspivuduspɛtɛvuduspena
Inferredvuduslivuduslɛtɛvuduslena
Reportedvudusuovodustɛvudusena

Ono

With ono ("←"), the arrow of motion is reversed, so the destination is coming to the subject. Ono is the default way to express ingestion, sensing, feeling, and thinking. When used for sensing, the subject is often a body part: "eye" for "seeing", "ear" for "hearing", "mouth" for taste and smell, "skin" for feeling temperature, and so on. The source, then, can be the owner of the body part. E-ono is used when something is sensed directly, with the subject usually being the person sensing the destination. mɛh-ono involves a subject moving towards a source. Dan-ono involves the subject experiencing something at a remove. The most common usage involves a peripheral phrase with mo, denoting that the subject knows something about the object of the preposition mo. The negative form of this verb is vu-ono or vono.

ono S A ← D
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øonotonoonna
Non-Visual/Sensoryombiombɛtɛombena
Inferredonlionlɛtɛonlena
Reportedonuotoneonena
eyono A ← D
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øeyonoetonoeyonna
Non-Visual/Sensoryeyombieyombɛtɛeyombena
Inferredeyonlieyonlɛtɛeyonlena
Reportedeyonuoŋetoneeyonena
mɛhono S A ←
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Ømɛhonomɛttonomɛhonna
Non-Visual/Sensorymɛhombimɛhombɛtɛmɛhombena
Inferredmɛhonlimɛhonlɛtɛmɛhonlena
Reportedmɛhonuomɛttonemɛhonena
danono A ←
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Ødanonodantonodanonna
Non-Visual/Sensorydanombidanombɛtɛdanombena
Inferreddanonlidanonlɛtɛdanonlena
Reporteddanonuodantonedanonena
vono (S) A !← (D)
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Øvonovotonovonna
Non-Visual/Sensoryvombivombɛtɛvombena
Inferredvonlivonlɛtɛvonlena
Reportedvonuovotonevonena

Pɛsi

Pɛsi ("→→") can be thought of as a special form of tɨŋi with a required source and an unexpressed destination "away". E-pɛsi removes the source, giving the meaning of the subject simply going away or disappearing. The negative form is vu-pɛsi.

pɛsi (S) A →→
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øpɛsipɛstɛpɛsna
Non-Visual/Sensorypɛspipɛspɛtɛpɛspena
Inferredpɛslipɛslɛtɛpɛslena
Reportedpɛseopɛstɛpɛsena
epɛsi A →→
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øepɛsiepɛstɛepɛsna
Non-Visual/Sensoryepɛspiepɛspɛtɛepɛspena
Inferredepɛsliepɛslɛtɛepɛslena
Reportedepɛseoyepɛstɛepɛsena
vupɛsi (S) A !→→
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Øvupɛsivupɛstɛvupɛsna
Non-Visual/Sensoryvupɛspivupɛspɛtɛvupɛspena
Inferredvupɛslivupɛslɛtɛvupɛslena
Reportedvupɛseovopɛstɛvupɛsena

Evi

Evi involves the subject moving out in all directions or expanding from a source. This is denoted as "↖↗". E-evi, expressed as ŋevi, removes the source. The negative is vu-evi or veve.

evi S A ↖↗
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øevitavievna
Non-Visual/Sensoryebiotabɛebena
Inferredevliotavlɛevlena
Reportedevootaveevena
ŋevi A ↖↗
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øŋeviŋetaviŋevna
Non-Visual/Sensoryŋebioŋetabɛŋebena
Inferredŋevlioŋetavlɛŋevlena
Reportedŋevooŋetaveŋevena
veve (S) A !↖↗
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Øvevevotavivevna
Non-Visual/Sensoryvebiovotabɛvebena
Inferredvevliovotavlɛvevlena
Reportedvevoovotavevevena

Ɛmɛmɛ

Ɛmɛmɛ involves the subject moving inwards from all directions or collapsing into a source, making it the opposite of evi. This is denoted as "↘↙". E-ɛmɛmɛ, expressed as ŋeme, removes the source. The negative is vu-ɛmɛmɛ or vɛmɛ. ɛmɛmɛ is often used to denote creation or making, where the subject is created by the source.

ɛmɛmɛ S A ↘↙
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øɛmɛmɛomɛtɛɛmena
Non-Visual/Sensoryɛmɛbiomɛptɛɛmbena
Inferredɛmɛliomɛttɛɛmlena
Reportedɛmɛmoomɛntɛɛmmena
ŋɛmɛ A ↘↙
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øŋɛmɛoŋemɛtɛŋɛmena
Non-Visual/Sensoryŋɛmɛbioŋemɛptɛŋɛmbena
Inferredŋɛmɛlioŋemɛttɛŋɛmlena
Reportedŋɛmɛmooŋemɛntɛŋɛmmena
vɛmɛ (S) A !↘↙
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Øvɛmɛovomɛtɛvɛmena
Non-Visual/Sensoryvɛmɛbiovomɛptɛvɛmbena
Inferredvɛmɛliovomɛttɛvɛmlena
Reportedvɛmoovomɛntɛvɛmmena

Verbs of Stance

The verbs of stance are tɛndɛ, sɛdɛ, daɬa, and their negative vuye. These verbs are grouped together because they each essentially function as a copula and verb of existence. Each can take either a motile or sessile subject, whichever is basic to the noun class of the subject. They don't take actual destinations, but sometimes a refining adjective, inflected to match the subject, can be found in the destination slot.

The differences between the three positive verbs of stance have to do with the shape of the subject. Tɛndɛ ("■") takes a subject that can be conceived of as a round, compact, or a point object, like a rock or a person sitting on the ground. Sɛdɛ ("|") takes a subject that can be conceived of as having a vertical orientation, like a tree or a person standing up. Daɬa ("–") takes a subject that can be conceived of as having a horizontal orientation, like a river or a person lying down. Daɬa also takes most abstract subjects.

tɛndɛ (S) A ■
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øtɛndɛtɛttɛtɛnna
Non-Visual/Sensorytɛppiotɛppɛtɛppena
Inferredtɛlliotɛllɛtɛllena
Reportedtɛndootɛttɛtɛndena
sɛdɛ (S) A |
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Øsɛdɛsɛttɛsɛnna
Non-Visual/Sensorysɛppiosɛppɛsɛppena
Inferredsɛlliosɛllɛsɛllena
Reportedsɛdoosɛttɛsɛdena
daɬa (S) A –
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Visual/Ødaɬadattɛdanna
Non-Visual/Sensorydappiodappɛdappena
Inferreddalliodallɛdallena
Reporteddaɬoodattɛdaɬena
vuye (S) A !
Imperfect Perfect Iterative
Øvuyevuttɛvunna
Non-Visual/Sensoryvuppiovoppɛvuppena
Inferredvulliovollɛvullena
Reportedvoyoovottɛvuyena

Uses of the Verbs of Stance

Expressing Existence

A verb of stance can be used with a single argument A to express existence.

Aktɛ kyɛnɛ sɛdɛ.

aktɛ kyɛnɛ
subject
a woman
sɛdɛ
verb.impf.vis
|

A woman exists. or There is a woman.

A clause can appear as a single argument as well. When this happens, the verb in the clause operating as an argument loses any marking for evidentiality.

Gada daɬa taba piye tɛndo.

gada
[subject
water
daɬa
verb.impf
taba
adjective
deep
piye
modifier]
too little/not enough
tɛndo
verb.impf.rept

The water not being deep enough happens.

Some speakers prefer to have clauses appear only after a verb. In this situation, a dummy subject da or one of the demonstratives is used.

Da tɛndo gada daɬa taba piye .

da
subject
 
tɛndo
verb.impf.rept
gada
[subject
water
daɬa
verb.impf
taba
adjective
deep
piye
modifier]
too little/not enough

It happens: the water not being deep enough.

When using a demonstrative as the subject of a verb of stance, the clause can be replaced with a simple noun phrase.

Duktɛ sɛdɛ kyɛnɛ.

duktɛ
subject
there+person
sɛdɛ
verb.impf.vis
|
kyɛnɛ
complement
woman

That one exists, the woman.

The sentence above can be rewritten with both arguments in the subject slot.

Duktɛ kyɛnɛ sɛdɛ.

duktɛ
subject
there+person
kyɛnɛ
 
woman
sɛdɛ
verb.impf.vis
|

That woman exists.

Expressing Identity and Attribution

As noted in the previous section, the verbs of stance can take a complement (either a noun phrase or a clause) in the destination slot.

Maktɛ sɛdɛ kyɛnɛ.

maktɛ
subject
3P+person
sɛdɛ
verb.impf.vis
|
kyɛnɛ
complement
woman

She is the woman.

Provided that both subject and complement are full noun phrases, they can be reversed.

Duktɛ kyɛnɛ sɛdɛ li mada.

duktɛ
subject
there+person
kyɛnɛ
 
woman
sɛdɛ
verb.impf.vis
|
li mada
complement
my mother

That woman is my mother.

li mada sɛdɛ duktɛ kyɛnɛ.

li mada
subject
my mother
sɛdɛ
verb.impf.vis
|
duktɛ
complement
there+person
kyɛnɛ
 
woman

My mother is that woman.

An adjective can also appear in the complement slot, expressing an attribute. Since a bare adjective is not a noun phrase, this relationship is not reversible.

li mada sɛdɛ ibibi.

li mada
subject
my mother
sɛdɛ
verb.impf.vis
|
ibibi
complement
very short

My mother is very short.

Expressing Possession, Benefaction, and Location

Expressing posession, benefaction, location, and other concepts involve using the verbs of stance as intransitive verbs with peripheral arguments. Peripheral arguments have a preposition+classifier before the noun.

Simple Possession

aŋopo kyune tɛndo paŋɛktɛ kyɛnɛ.

aŋopo
subject
one+bundle
kyune
 
rope
tɛndo
verb.impf.rept
pa
prep.pert
belong.to
=ŋɛktɛ
 
other+person
kyɛnɛ
 
woman

The rope belongs to the other woman.

Whole::Part Relationship

allɛ idɛl tɛndɛ nɛmmuŋya siye.

allɛ
subject
one+dear
idɛl
 
cat
tɛndɛ
verb.impf.vis
nɛn
prep.com
with
=ɛmmuŋya
 
two+long.vertical+Adj->N
siye
 
dark

The dear cat has a pair of long vertical dark stripes/splotches.

Benefaction

astɛ gyadad daɬa moduktɛ kyɛnɛ.

astɛ
subject
one+time.period
gyadad
 
ceremony
daɬa
verb.impf.vis
mo
prep.ben
for
=duktɛ
 
there+person
kyɛnɛ
 
woman

The ceremony is for that woman.

Location

astɛ gyadad dattɛ odussi kyɛnɛ.

astɛ
subject
one+time.period
gyadad
 
ceremony
dattɛ
verb.perf.vis
o
prep.loc
in
=dussi
 
there+area
dɛspɛ
 
village

The ceremony was in that village.

Temporary Identity or Attribute

li mada sɛdɛ goktɛ dona.

li mada
subject
my mother
sɛdɛ
verb.impf.vis
|
go
prep.manner
as
=ktɛ
 
person
dona
 
traveler

My mother is a traveler.

Composition

ahɨmɨ gɛdɛ daɬo vonɨde atad.

ahɨmɨ
subject
one+hollow
gɛdɛ
 
boat
daɬo
verb.impf.rept
vo
prep.comp
of
=nɨde
 
long.horizontal
atad
 
atad tree

The boat is made from the (felled) atad tree.

Instrument

ahɨmɨ gɛdɛ daɬo togɨŋi kyasa.

ahɨmɨ
subject
one+hollow
gɛdɛ
 
boat
daɬo
verb.impf.rept
to
prep.inst
with
=gɨŋi
 
pointed
kyasa
 
hand axe

The boat is made with a hand axe.