A Kēlen sentence consists minimally of a relational and its core argument. There are four relationals, and the object of each relational is its core argument, the noun phrase it expects. This object is also what the sentence is about. The relationals are: LA, SE, NI, and PA:
- LA takes a single object: something that exists in a state or a location.
- NI takes a single object: something that has undergone a change of state or location.
- SE takes a single object: something that has a source and/or a goal.
- PA takes two objects: a whole and its part.
LA
LA takes a single core argument: something that exists in a state or a location. It does not take any secondary arguments.
Existence:
la jacēla; LA N.sg(bowl) 'There exists a bowl.' or 'There is the/a bowl.'
Existence in a location:
la jacēla sū jatēwa; LA N.sg(bowl) LOC(at) N.sg(table) 'There exists a bowl on the/a table.' or 'The/a bowl is on the/a table.'
Existence in a state:
la jacēla janēla; LA N.sg(bowl) N.sg(red) 'There exists a bowl, a red thing.' or 'The bowl is red.'
LA can be inflected for tense, aspect, and modality. The forms are as follows:
| la | present generic, present habitual, "is" |
| an | present progressive, present continuous, "is currently" |
| te | past (imperfect), "was" |
| reha | future (certain), "will be, must be" |
| heja | obligatory, desiderative, probability, "should be", "ought to be" |
| hie | conditional, hypothetical, possible, supposition, "could be", "might be" |
| wa | negative, "is not" |
As in:
an jacēla janēla; LA.pres N.sg(bowl) N.sg(red) 'The bowl is (currently) red.'
te jacēla jūña; LA.past N.sg(bowl) N.sg(blue) 'The bowl was blue.'
reha jacēla jatāxa; LA.fut.cert N.sg(bowl) N.sg(purple) 'The bowl will be purple.'
heja jacēla jatāxa; LA.obl N.sg(bowl) N.sg(purple) 'The bowl should be purple.'
hie jacēla jatāxa; LA.cond N.sg(bowl) N.sg(purple) 'The bowl could be purple.' or 'The bowl might be purple.'
wa jacēla jamāλa; LA.neg N.sg(bowl) N.sg(green) 'The bowl is not green.'
NI
NI takes a single object: something that has undergone a change of state (that is something affected by a cause) or a change of location (motion). NI is not inflected for tense, aspect, or modality. It takes a secondary argument: the person or object that caused the change of state. This is marked with the case marker ā. When the agent is animate, then NI is inflected for person, like so:
| agent | Null | 1p.sg | 1p.ex.pc | 1p.ex.pl | 1p.in.pc | 1p.in.pl | 2p.sg | 2p.pc | 2p.pl | 3p.sg | 3p.pc | 3p.pl |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ñi | ñalla | ñalna | ñalta | ñanna | ñanta | ñarra | ñarna | ñarta | ñamma | ñatta | ñaxxa |
Examples:
ōrra ñamma sāeþ rājapēxa; PAST NI+3p.sg.agent PN(3p.pl) LOC(to)+MOD(away) 'He made them go away.' or 'He sent them away.'
ōrra ñi jacēla jahūwa; PAST NI N.sg(bowl) N.sg(broken) 'The bowl broke.'
ōrra ñalla jacēla jahūwa; PAST NI+1p.sg.agent N.sg(bowl) N.sg(broken) 'I made the bowl break.' or 'I broke the bowl.'
ōrra ñamma λi-xējelke maλāta ā kīþje; PAST NI+3p.sg.agent Pr.Name-Xējelke N.sg.anim(killed) A Kīþje 'Kīþje killed Xējelke.'
When the agent and the object of NI are both animate, NI can be inflected for both agent and patient in the same manner as SE. This is a stylistic decision.
ōrra ñemesse rājapēxa; PAST NI+3p.sg.agent+3p.pl LOC(to)+MOD(away) 'He sent them away.'
ōrra ñemme λi-xējelke maλāta ā kīþje; PAST NI+3p.sg.agent+3p.sg Pr.Name-Xējelke N.sg.anim(killed) A Kīþje 'Kīþje killed Xējelke.'
When the agent and the object of NI are the same entity, or when the agent is unexpressed, NI is uninflected:
ōrra ñi sāen rājapēxa; PAST NI PN(3p.sg) LOC(to)+MOD(away) 'He went away.'
ōrra ñi λi-xējelke maλāta; PAST NI Pr.Name-Xējelke N.sg.anim(killed) 'Xējelke was killed.'
However, NI can be inflected with a reflexive pronoun (like SE) when the actor acted with volition:
ōrra ñi matāra PAST NI N.sg.anim(fallen) 'He fell.'
ōrra ñemeñ matāra PAST NI+3p.sg.refl N.sg.anim(fallen) 'He jumped.'
The secondary argument, the agent or cause, when explicitly expressed, is preceded by the marker ā. The peripheral inanimate source marker to marks an instrument. Additionally, the word tō, usually a conjunction, can mark a secondary agent or cause.
ōrra ñemme λi-xējelke maλāta ā kīþje; PAST NI+3p.sg.agent+3p.sg. Pr.Name-Xējelke N.sg.anim(killed) A Kīþje 'Kīþje killed Xējelke.'
ñamma jasāla ā mawālanen; NI+3p.sg.agent N.sg(song) A N.sg.anim(student) 'The student is singing.'
ñamma anēlki ankehāri ā malō NI+3p.sg.agent N.co(ice) N.co(melted) A N.sg.anim(sun) 'The sun melted the ice.'
ñi anēlki ankehāri ā ancāllen; NI N.co(ice) N.co(melted) A N.st(heat) [NI is uninflected because cause is inanimate] 'The heat melted the ice.' or 'The ice was melted by the heat.'
ōrra ñamma anāmāesi anmōmi to jacāta; PAST NI+3p.sg.agent N.co(ants) N.co(flat) SRC N.sg(shoe) 'She flattened ants with a shoe.'
ōrra ñamma jīlke ā mattūtōn; PAST NI+3p.sg.agent N.sg(letter) A N.sg.anim(teacher) 'The teacher wrote a letter.'
ōrra ñamma jīlke ā mattūtōn tō Kēla; PAST NI+3p.sg.agent N.sg(letter) A N.sg.anim(teacher) A Kēla 'Kēla got/made the teacher to write a letter.' or 'The teacher wrote a letter because of Kēla.'
These last pairs illustrate what exactly is meant by a change in state:
ōrra ñi jacēla jahūwa; PAST NI N.sg(bowl) N.sg(broken) 'The bowl broke.'
la jacēla jahūwa; LA N.sg(bowl) N.sg(broken) 'The bowl is broken.' [the bowl starts out broken]
la ankēji ancōri; LA N.co(skies) N.co(blue) 'The sky is blue.'
ñi ankēji ancōri; NI N.co(skies) N.co(blue) 'The sky is (now) blue.' or 'The sky became blue.'
la jacēla sū jatēwa; LA N.sg(bowl) LOC(at) N.sg(table) 'The bowl is on the table.'
ñi jacēla sū jatēwa; LA N.sg(bowl) LOC(at) N.sg(table) 'The bowl is (now) on the table.' or 'The bowl appeared on the table.'
Uses of NI
NI is often in conjunction with rā and rū used to denote motion. NI plus rā means that the object of NI has changed its location to the object of rā. NI plus rū means that the object of NI has changed its location from the object of rū. For example:
ñi sāen rā jamāonre; NI PN(3p.sg) LOC(to) N.sg(city) 'He is to the city.' or 'He went to the city'
ñi sāen rū jamāonre; NI PN(3p.sg) LOC(from) N.sg(city) 'He is from the city.' or 'He (came|arrived) from the city'
rā and rū need to have an object. See sū, rū, and rā for more details. To say simply 'go (away)' or 'come (here)', use rājapēxa and rājanō.
ñi sāen rājapēxa; NI PN(3p.sg) LOC(to)+MOD(away) 'He is to away.' or 'He went away.'
ñi sāen rājanō; NI PN(3p.sg) LOC(to)+MOD(to) 'He is to here.' or 'He came.'
SE
SE takes a single object: something that has a source and/or a goal. It also takes as secondary arguments a source marked by either ke (volitional source, animate source) and to (non-volitional source, inanimate source, instrument), and a goal marked by mo (experiencer, beneficiary). These can, however, be null. If either the source or the goal is animate, then SE is inflected for person. SE also inflects for tense in a similar manner as LA. For example:
selre anlāsi; SE+1p.sg.src+2p.sg.goal N.co(greetings) 'From me to you, greetings.' or 'I give you greetings.' or 'I greet you.'
anelnirne jamīra; SE.prog+1p.pauc.src+2p.pauc.goal N.sg(fright) 'From us(few) to you(few), a fright.' or 'We are giving you a fright.' or 'We are frightening you.'
temme jacōña; SE.past+3p.sg.src+3p.sg.goal N.sg(kiss) 'From her to him, a kiss.' or 'She gave him a kiss.' or 'She kissed him.'
The tense/aspect/modality inflections are the same as with LA, except that there is no negative. Instead the clausal modifier wā is used.
| s(e)- | present generic, present habitual |
| an- | present progressive, present continuous |
| t(e)- | past (imperfect) |
| reh- | future (obligatory, certain) |
| hej- | desiderative, probability |
| hi(e)- | hypothetical, possible, supposition |
temme jacōña wā; SE.past+3p.sg.src+3p.sg.goal N.sg(kiss) NEG 'From her to him, a kiss, not.' or 'She didn't give him a kiss.' or 'She didn't kiss him.'
The pronoun inflections are fusional, though certain patterns can be discerned:
| source goal | Null Source |
1p.sg | 1p.ex.pc | 1p.ex.pl | 1p.in.pc | 1p.in.pl | 2p.sg | 2p.pc | 2p.pl | 3p.sg | 3p.pc | 3p.pl |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Null Goal |
se | salla | salna | salta | sanna | santa | sarra | sarna | sarta | samma | satta | saxxa |
| Reflexive | se | seleñ | selneñ | selteñ | senneñ | sañañ | sereñ | sirneñ | sirteñ | semeñ | seteñ | sexeñ |
| 1p.sg | sele | serle | sirnele | sirtele | semle | setle | sexle | |||||
| 1p.ex.pc | selne | serelne | sirnelne | sirtelne | semelne | setelne | sexelne | |||||
| 1p.ex.pl | selte | serelte | sirnelte | sirtelte | semelte | setelte | sexelte | |||||
| 1p.in.pc | senne | serenne | sirnenne | sirtenne | semenne | setenne | sexenne | |||||
| 1p.in.pl | saña | seraña | sirnaña | sirtaña | semaña | setaña | sexaña | |||||
| 2p.sg | sere | selre | selnere | seltere | sennere | sanre | semre | setre | sexre | |||
| 2p.pc | serne | selirne | selnirne | seltirne | sennirne | sañirne | semirne | setirne | sexirne | |||
| 2p.pl | serte | selirte | selnirte | seltirte | sennirte | sañirte | semirte | setirte | sexirte | |||
| 3p.sg | sema | selme | selneme | selteme | senneme | sañeme | serme | sirneme | sirteme | semme | setme | sexme |
| 3p.pc | sete | selte | selnete | seltete | sennete | sañete | serete | sirnete | sirtete | semete | setete | sexete |
| 3p.pl | sexe | selesse | selnesse | seltesse | sennesse | sañesse | seresse | sirnesse | sirtesse | semesse | setesse | sexesse |
As mentioned earlier, explicit mention of a source or goal requires case markers. The case marker ke is used for animate sources; to is used for inanimate sources and animate sources acting like inanimate sources, i.e. involuntary animate sources; and mo is used for goals, animate and inanimate. When to is used for a source, even an animate source, then SE is not inflected for source. This leads to cases where SE is only inflected for goal.
temme antēnni pē ke masōwa mo mamōīñ; SE.past+3p.sg.src+3p.sg.goal N.co(money) MOD(some) SRC.anim N.sg.anim(father) GOAL N.anim.sg(son) 'The father gave some money to the son.'
tema antēnni pē to masōwa mo mamōīñ; SE.past+3p.sg.goal N.co(money) MOD(some) SRC N.sg.anim(father) GOAL N.anim.sg(son) 'The father involuntarily gave some money to the son.' or 'The son took money from the father.'
telme antēnni pē ke liēn; SE.past+1p.sg src/3p.sg goal N.co(money) MOD(some) SRC.anim PN(1p.sg) 'I gave him some money.'
The order of the case-marked phrases is flexible. They can come in any order, though often the order is ke phrase, mo phrase, to phrase.
More examples:
ē tetaña lepīra CONJ(and) SE.past+3p.pc.src/1p.incl.pl.goal N.sg.poss(1p+teeth) '[The gods] gave us teeth;...'
aþ rehetaña anjīlni ke mērji; CONJ(and) SE.fut.cert+3p.pc.src/1p.incl.pl.goal N.co(food) SRC.anim N.co.anim(gods) '...the gods will give us food.'
anema jakelōren to anwīþþēñi pē; SE.pres+3p.sg.goal N.sg(regret) SRC N.co(wine) MOD(some) 'He regrets some wine.'
tema jasācīñ mo māstañen mārōn SE.past+3p.sg.goal N.sg(lust) GOAL N.sg.anim(āstaña) N.sg.anim(lord) 'The Lord of āstaña was smitten...'
to jahōhēran mawīnle matāka; SRC N.sg(Kitchen Guild) N.sg.anim(pre-student) N.sg.anim(muscular) '...with the muscular Kitchen Guild pre-student.'
Uses of SE
SE is used for utterances, with the marker ien.
temme ien ... SE.past+3p.sg.src/3p.sg.goal QUOT ... 'She said to her...'
temme ien ñi rājapēxa cī; SE.past+3p.sg.src/3p.sg.goal QUOT NI LOC(to)+MOD(away) COMM 'She said to her "Go away!"'
ien can also elaborate on a specifically named topic, or serve to displace the topic for various reasons.
temme ansōri ien ñi rājapēxa cī; SE.past+3p.sg.src/3p.sg.goal N.co(words) QUOT NI LOC(to)+MOD(away) COMM 'She said the words to her: "Go away!"'
se to jakā jahē ien jīþa; SE SRC N.sg(deed) N.sg(good) TOPIC N.sg(other) 'One good deed deserves another.' (One good deed is the source of another.)
SE is often used for experiences, such as seeing, hearing, etc. When used to express experiences, the thing experienced is the object of SE and the person experiencing is the goal, with a mo phrase to express how someone experienced something.
sere jaxīra āke mo risāra kēñ; SE+2p.sg.goal N.sg(noise) MOD(that) GOAL N.poss(2p+ears) INTERR 'Do you hear that noise?'
tele sāen mo lerōña il talōnte; SE.past+1p.sg.goal PN(3p.sg) GOAL N.poss(1p+eyes) MOD(yesterday) 'I saw her yesterday.'
sere þō jajāla mo rihīña cī SE+2p.sg.goal PN(this) N.sg(fruit) GOAL N.poss(2p+nose) COMM 'Smell this fruit.'
Kēleñi experience emotions and other mental states in the body as well:
tema jakewūna mo sīra;
He experienced vulnerability. (in his back)
tema janūra mo sacāe;
He experienced anger. (in his belly)
tema jepīññen mo samāna;
He experienced malice. (in his blood)
tema jalōλa mo samūña;
He experienced faith. (in his bones)
tema jālmañen mo sahāla;
He experienced contentment. (in his chest)
tema jatōxreña mo sakū;
He experienced restlessness. (in his hands)
PA
PA takes a compound object: a whole and its part. A third object would be a part of a part and a fourth would be a part of a part of a part, etc. In actuality, PA rarely has more than three objects.
pa ankēji ankēōreni; PA WHOLE PART PA N.co(sky) N.co(clouds) 'The sky has clouds.'
pa jacēla janēla; PA WHOLE PART PA N.sg(bowl) N.sg(red) 'The bowl has a red blotch.'
PA can also come between a whole and its part:
ñi sāen pa anlōrāl; NI WHOLE PA PART NI PN(3p.sg) PA N.st(sorrow) 'She became sad.'
PA is apparently the most recent relational. Eastern Kēlen doesn't use it as a relational in colloquial speech, putting PA between the whole and the part. So, for example, the above sentences become:
la ankēji pa ankēōreni; LA WHOLE PA PART LA N.co(sky) PA N.co(clouds) 'The sky has clouds.'
la jacēla pa janēla; LA WHOLE PA PART LA N.sg(bowl) PA N.sg(red) 'The bowl has a red blotch.'
In Standard Kēlen, both patterns are used. Generally PA WHOLE PART is used for something that is unlikely to change, while REL WHOLE PA PART is used for things that have changed. So, in the first set of examples, the first sentence implies that the sky always has clouds, and that the bowl has a permanent red blotch. In the second set of examples, the sky isn't always cloudy, and the red blotch is temporary, perhaps some spilled dye that can be removed. Colloquially, however, these distinctions aren't always made, and the pattern PA WHOLE PART is more prevalent, giving way to REL WHOLE PA PART when the sentence is more complicated.