Noun Structure

Nouns consist of a root with a prefix and various suffixes. Noun roots are often monosyllabic, with a CVC structure, but V, VC, CV, multisyllabic, and compounded roots also occur.

The prefixes come in three sets: animate, inanimate, and stative. Animate nouns are those that refer to people or to things as if they were people. Inanimate nouns include all the places and things that can be pointed to and quantified. Stative nouns include abstract qualities and processes.

The prefixes are:

ma- ~ m-	for animates
ja- ~ j-	for inanimates
an-	for collectives

The prefixes ma- and ja- occur before consonants, and m- and j- before vowels.

The suffixes include:

-a ~ -e ~ -0	the generic suffix
-i	the plural suffix; this changes to -e after ā-.
-ien	the animate plural suffix

The generic suffix takes the form -a:

after any root ending in a stop or fricative
if the prefix + root is only two syllables

The generic suffix takes the form -e:

after any root ending in a double consonant
after the suffixes -īw-, -īk-

The generic suffix takes the null form:

after any root ending in a long vowel or sonorant

Inflections

Kēlen distinguishes between generic, collective, and plural for both animates and inanimates. In addition, there is a numberless state for abstractions.

jatēta	'something old, an old thing'
matēta	'someone old, an elder'
antēti	'group of old things'
matēti	'group of old people'
jatēti	'various old things'
mattētien	'various old people'

Or, nouns inflect like so (NB stands for Noun Base):

	inanimate	animate
singular	ja-NB-a	ma-NB-a
collective	an-NB-i	ma-NB-i
plural	ja-NB-i	ma-*NB-ien

Singular inanimate nouns use the inanimate prefix and the generic suffix. Singular animate nouns use the animate prefix and the generic suffix. For collectives, inanimates use the collective prefix and the plural suffix, while animates use the animate prefix and the plural suffix. For plurals, inanimates use the inanimate prefix and the plural suffix, while animates use the animate prefix and the animate plural suffix. In addition, animate plurals double the first consonant of the base word. So, ma+tēt+ien becomes mattētien. If the base word does not begin with a consonant, this rule is not applied. So, ma+ēl+ien becomes mēlien 'people'.

Noun inflections are important when constructing noun phrases, since two or more nouns of the same inflection in juxtaposition all refer to the same entity. For example:

jacēla janēla
'red bowl' (lit. 'a bowl, a red thing')
malāca maxōλa
'pretty girl' (lit. 'a girl, a pretty one')
anhāri anlōi
'bright water' (lit. 'water, bright')
jūña jamāλa
'blue and green thing' (lit. 'a blue thing, a green thing')

The order of the nouns in this type of juxtaposition can vary without a change in meaning, though the default is to move from the general to the specific.

janēla jacēla
'red bowl' (lit. 'a red thing, a bowl')
maxōλa malāca
'pretty girl' (lit. 'a pretty one, a girl')
anlōi anhāri
'bright water'
jamāλa jūña
'blue and green thing'

It does not matter how many nouns are in juxtaposition, if they are all of the same inflection, then they refer to the same entity.

Two or more nouns of differing inflections in juxtaposition is a little more complicated. The first noun or nouns of the same inflection is considered a whole, and the next noun or nouns differing in inflection from the first are a part of that whole. So, here, word order is important.

ancēli janēla
of a set of bowls, the red one
'the red bowl'
jacēla annēla
a bowl, redness
'the red of the bowl'
ankēla ansōri
art, a set of words
'poetry'
malāca jatūmse
of the girl, a tūmse
'the girl's tūmse'

This is the same relationship between nouns that the relational PA explicitly denotes.

Animacy

Animate nouns generally refer to people and to things that have been promoted to personhood. The exact list of animate nouns varies by idiolect. The strictest usage has only nouns referring Kēleñi people as animate. Generally, however, humans and īrāñi are also animate, as well as some animals and some natural forces.

Animacy Scale

<—

Kēleñi kin —

Kēleñi non-kin —

Īrāñi & humans —

natural forces, pets —

animals, natural objects —

tools —

everything else

—>

For example, the noun jatūmse refers to a small predator. When kept as a pet, it often becomes matūmse. Also, the noun malō always refers to the sun. The corresponding inanimate jalō refers to something bright.

Everything else is, of course, necessarily inanimate. Sometimes an otherwise animate noun will be 'demoted' to inanimacy for the purposes of insult. As an example consider:

hīja ñi āke japēxte rājapēxa cī; FUT.poss NI PN(that far) N.inan.sg(stranger) LOC(to)+MOD(away) COMM 'May that stranger leave!'

Here the noun mapēxte 'stranger' has been changed to an inanimate noun to express the speaker's scorn.

Number

In Kēlen, singular nouns do not necessarily refer to singular entities or plural nouns to plural entities. The singular is usually used for pairs. Also, when counting, the singular is used up through the number four. Five and up are plural. This state of affairs is complicated further by collectives, and the numberless statives.

Collectives

Generally, all noun bases can be either singular, plural, collective. In practice, many nouns have semantic restrictions in inflection.

Collectives and plurals both refer to multiple entities. Collectives, however, refer to the multiple entities as a whole, and plurals do not. Some nouns naturally occur as collectives rather than as singulars or plurals. This would include things that naturally occur in groups, such as:

matanāe	'a crowd, multitude, or mob'
annōri	'ashes'

and more subtle groups, such as:

anwūrreni	'chorus (a collection of voices)'
antītāli	'salary (a collection of paychecks)'

powder-like substances:

anwūlīñ	'sand'
anrōli	'snow'

liquids:

anālhāri	'ocean'
anhāŋŋañi	'soup'

expanses of a substance:

ankēōreni	'expanse of clouds'
anlūŋŋiþi	'expanse of marble'

expanses of time:

ankānali	'ceremony'
anīltārranni	'rainy season'

and natural phenomena:

anālri	'storm'
annāoli	'wildfire'

In the case of most collectives, a singular refers to a piece or part of the natural collective.

Statives

Abstractions get their own inflection, called the stative. These refer to the idea or essense of an entity or to an event characterized by an entity. These are numberless, not negative. The stative uses the collective prefix with the generic suffix. Thus, the base -tēt- becomes antēta 'old age' in the stative.

Some analysts consider the inanimate collective to be a plural form of the stative. Both the collective and the stative can be used as generics. For example:

pa antūmsi jahēñtā; PA N.co(tūmse) N.sg(tail) 'Tūmse have tails.'

pa antūmse jahēñtā; PA N.st(tūmse) N.sg(tail) 'Tūmse have tails.'

Using the collective antūmsi implies a set of all tūmse, each of which have tails. The stative antūmse, on the other hand, refers to tūmse-ness, which consists of having a tail. To expand upon the examples:

pa antūmsi jahēñtā ewaþ pa þō jawae; PA N.co(tūmse) N.sg(tail) yet PA PN(this one) PN.indef(none) 'Tūmse have tails, yet this one has none.'

pa antūmse jahēñtā tō jāo wa þō jatūmse; PA N.st(tūmse) N.sg(tail) therefore LA.neg PN(this one) N.sg(tūmse) 'Tūmse have tails, therefore this one is not a tūmse.'

Old Kēlen had a class noun inflection, formed with the prefix ana- plus a reduplication of the initial consonant of the root, and the suffix -ien. An example of this would be anattūmsien, a word that refers to tūmse as a class of things. This is similar enough to a stative usage, that current dialects of Kēlen conflated this form with the stative.

Some dialects of Kēlen also have an inanimate distributive. This uses the inanimate prefix, and the animate plural suffix, as well as the initial base consonant reduplication rule. This is a rare inflection that refers to scattered instances of an entity. For example, anhāri as a collective is 'water, a collection of water drops'. As a distributive jahhārien would refer to 'various separate drops of water.'

Obligatorily Possessed Nouns

Kēlen also has a class of obligatorily possessed nouns. The canonical obligatorily possessed nouns are body parts. These are considered to be singular, even when they refer to a pair.

These are inflected by replacing the expected inanimate prefix ja- with the following possessive prefixes:

1p	le-
2p	ri-
3p	sa-

as in:

lerōña	'my eyes'
risāra	'your ears'
sakū	'his/her hand(s)'
sāim sakū	'their hand(s)'
maxāna sakū	'a friend's hand(s)'

If the possessor is named, the noun is still inflected and the possessor precedes the possessed noun. An example of this occurs in the last line of the table above.

Body part bases will sometimes occur as inanimate singulars, but only in the context of detached parts unassociated with their (former) persons.

Occasionally in the proper context,other non-body-part bases will also carry possessed marking. For example:

tele mālmāra sarōnne mo lerōña; SE.past+1p.sg.goal N.anim.sg(mother) N.poss(3p.picture) GOAL N.poss(1p.eyes) I saw mother's picture.

teteñ ien hēja ñanna lewēra cī; SE.past+3p.refl QUOT FUT.obl NI+1p.pc.incl N.poss(3p.name) COMM They said: let us make a name for ourselves.

In order for a noun base to carry possessed marking, that noun must be attached or exclusively associated with a person. In some dialects, this includes emotions and other mental states, utterances, and creations. It rarely occurs with kinship. When it does, the possessed form is someone's (biological) child.

Possessed nouns are considered to be the equivalent of inanimate singular nouns, even when they refer to a set of two or more. Therefore, when a possessed noun is in juxtaposition with an inanimate singular noun, they refer to the same entity.

sapīra jāŋŋena
3p-tooth/teeth, sharp thing
'sharp tooth/teeth'

vs.

matūmse sapīra
tūmse (pet), 3p-tooth/teeth
the tūmse's tooth/teeth

Association

There is another way to express what is commonly known as possession in Kēlen. This is through association. Association is expressed with the words nīkan and jē. nīkan is used when associating an animate with a stative or an inanimate. Again, notice that when the associator is named, the associator precedes the associatee. It inflects for person as follows:

jaxūra nīkanle	or	jaxūra-nle	'my door'
jaxūra nīkanrie	or	jaxūra-nrie	'your door'
jaxūra nīkamma	or	jaxūra-mma	'his/her door'
jaxūra nīkamma sāim	or	sāim jaxūra-mma	'their door'
jaxūra nīkan maxāna	or	maxāna jaxūra-mma	'a friend's door'

jē is used for associating an animate with another animate. It inflects for person as follows:

maxāna jē liēn	or	maxān-ēle	'my friend'
maxāna jē riēn	or	maxān-ēri	'your friend'
maxāna jē sāen	or	maxān-ēma	'his/her friend'
maxāna jē sāim	or	sāim maxān-ēma	'their friend'
maxāna jē maxāna	or	maxāna maxān-ēma	'a friend's friend'

jē can also be used to associate an animate with a proper-name location, as in makerāon jē sarāpa 'ruler of Sarāpa'.

Pronouns

Pronouns are those words that can stand in place of a noun or noun phrase. Kēlen has personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, quantifier pronouns, and indefinite pronouns.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns make more distinctions in number than nouns do. Where nouns have merely a singular, a collective, and a plural, pronouns come in singular, dual, paucal (or collective), and plural. The dual is used for pairs and dyads. The paucal is generally used to refer to a set of closely bonded individuals, such as in a marriage or small kingroup, and other groups that act collectively. The plural is used to refer to larger unrelated groups of people. Thus the paucal has lost its strict numerical value and become a collective plural, while the plural remains a non-collective plural. Kēlen culture approves of collectives, so the paucal is actually more widespread than the plural.

Furthermore, the first person pronouns come in both exclusive and inclusive varieties. Exclusive excludes 2nd person, and inclusive includes it. Or, first person exclusive refers to 'me and him or her, but not you', or first person plus third person, and first person inclusive refers to 'me and you and maybe him or her, too', or first person plus second and/or third person.

	Singular	Dual		Paucal		Plural
1p	liēn	liēnne	1 + 3	lēim	1 + (3 + 3)	liēþ	1 + 3 + 3
	(inclusive)	liēr	1 + 2	ñēim	1 + (2 + 2)	ñiēþ	1 + 2 + 3
2p	riēn	riēnne	2 + 2	rēim	2 + (2 + 2)	riēþ	2 + 3
3p	sāen	sāenne	3 + 3	sāim	3 + (3 + 3)	sāeþ	3 + 3 + 3

These pronouns can be used wherever nouns are used. They are always used in the topic position, and sometimes used in oblique positions, especially where emphasis is required or politeness rules dictate their usage. There is also a set of reduced pronouns, which are more common in colloquial or informal speech. There are three of these:

1p	le
2p	ri
3p	ma

le is often used in place of singular, dual, and paucal forms of 1p, exclusive and inclusive. This is considered a polite usage. ri can be used in place of singular, dual, and occasionally paucal forms of 2p, but is considered impolite. ma is often used in place of any of the 3p animate forms, and is neutral as far as politeness is concerned, though in some contexts it could be interpreted as impolite.

In contrast, the modifier āñ can be used with any noun or non-reduced pronoun to add emphasis, as a way of referring again to itself.

Demonstrative Pronouns

There are three deictic demonstratives. The three are: þō, which is used to refer to things near the speaker; xō, which is used to refer to things near the hearer; and āke, which is used to refer to things away from both the speaker and the hearer. There is also a non-deictic or generic demonstrative jāo.

pa þō jacēla anūña;
'This (by me) bowl is blue.'

pa xō jacēla anmāλa;
'That (by you) bowl is green.'

pa āke jacēla annēla;
'That (by them) bowl is red.'

These can also be rendered:

pa þō anūña;
'This one (by me) is blue.'

pa xō anmāλa;
'That one (by you) is green'.

pa āke annēla;
'That one (by them) is red.'

The demonstrative pronouns þō, xō, and āke are necessarily definite, as is jāo. However, jāo, while definite, cannot be used in conjunction with a regular noun:

pa jāo anēkke;
'That is brown'.

*pa jacēla jāo anēkke;
*'That bowl is brown.'

More on Definiteness

Another way to express definiteness is to use modifying nouns that are necessarily definite in meaning. These would be nouns meaning "the first one", "the last one", "the other one", etc. Remember that two nouns in juxtaposition refer to the same entity.

jacēla jīþa
the other bowl

jacēla jānexa
the only bowl

jacēla jānnena
the first bowl

jacēla japēxena
the last bowl

jacēla jaxōnte
the next bowl

jacēla jānnala
the previous bowl

jacēla jañēie
the same bowl

Quantifiers

Quantifiers are modifiers that express an indefinite quanity, such as few, many, and all. Kēlen has the following quantifiers:

	sg	co/pl
wā	none of	no
āmiwe	too little of	too few
pē pē	very little of	very few
pē	little of/some of	few
ām	enough of	enough
nā	most of/much of	most/many
ŋō	very much of	very many
nāpie	too much of	too many
nāra	all of	all
tēna	all of	all

Examples:

'There's too little water in the creek.' la anhāri āmiwe sū jatāna; LA N.co(water) MOD(too little) LOC(at) N.sg(creek)

'There's too much water in the creek. (Flood!)' la anhāri nāpie sū jatāna; LA N.co(water) MOD(too much) LOC(at) N.sg(creek)

'There are a few trees on the hill.' la jamēþa pē sū jalāīñ; LA N.sg(tree) MOD(few) LOC(at) N.sg(hill)

'There are many trees on the hill.' la jamēþi nā sū jalāīñ; LA N.pl(trees) MOD(many) LOC(at) N.sg(hill)

'There are very many trees on the hill.' la jamēþi ŋō sū jalāīñ; LA N.pl(trees) MOD(very many) LOC(at) N.sg(hill)

'There are no trees on the hill.' la jamēþa wā sū jalāīñ; LA N.sg(tree) MOD(none) LOC(at) N.sg(hill)

When used as pronouns, the quantifiers are inflected as singular nouns, except for nā and wā, which inflect as plural nouns, and nāra, discussed below. Additionally, pē pē and ām are suppleted by the nouns jañīña and jaŋŋīra, respectively.

'There are many trees on the hill.' la jamēþi nā sū jalāīñ; LA N.pl(trees) MOD(many) LOC(at) N.sg(hill)

'There are many trees on the hill.' la jamēþi janāe sū jalāīñ; LA N.pl(trees) N.pl(many) LOC(at) N.sg(hill)

'There are very few trees on the hill.' la jamēþa pē pē sū jalāīñ; LA N.sg(tree) MOD(very few) LOC(at) N.sg(hill)

'There are very few on the hill.' la jamēþi jañīña sū jalāīñ; LA N.pl(trees) N.sg(tiny) LOC(at) N.sg(hill)

Like numbers, quantifiers become inflected nouns when modifying inside a set. When doing so, they use the same forms as their pronoun form. Except for nāra, which will be discussed below. Additionally, the quantifiers nā and pē can modify stative nouns, as in pa jatōna anhēkēl nā; 'The road was well made.' These two also combine with the preposition ñe to form comparatives.

Quantifier	as Pronoun	modifying N.co
wā	jawāe	jawāe	none
āmiwe	jāmiwe	jāmiwe	too few
pē pē	jañīña	jañīña	very few
pē	japē	japē	few
ām	jaŋŋīra	jaŋŋīra	enough
nā	janāe	janāe	most/many
ŋō	jaŋō	jaŋō	very many
nāpie	janāpie	janāpie	too many
nāra	janāren/jannarien	tēna	all

With nāra, the pronoun form is the same as the indefinite pronoun form for 'everything, all things'. The counting-inside-a-set form has been suppleted by the quantifier tēna, which means 'all of a small number'. tēna is used to count inside a set, as an emphatic with numbers, and as a way of designating a pair.

ancēli nāra N.co(bowls) MOD(all) 'all the sets of bowls'

ancēli tēna N.co(bowls) MOD(all) 'all of the set of bowls'

ancēli jawīor tēna N.co(bowls) N.sg(four) MOD(all) 'all four from the set of bowls'

sawānne nāra N.poss(3p.foot) MOD(all) 'all of his foot'

sawānne tēna N.poss(3p.foot) MOD(all) 'both of his feet'

Indefinite Pronouns

Regarding the forms janaren and jannarien mentioned above, both mean 'all things' or 'everything'. The difference lies in application. janaren refers to all of a single thing or all of a set. jannarien, on the other hand, refers to all things. For example, consider again:

ancēli nāra N.co(bowls) MOD(all) 'all the sets of bowls'

ancēli tēna N.co(bowls) MOD(all) 'all of the set of bowls'

The first phrase can be replaced only by jannarien and the second only by janaren. Likewise,

jacēli nāra N.pl(bowls) MOD(all) 'all bowls'

can also only be replaced by jannarien. janaren is known as an indefinite pronoun and jannarien as an indefinite distributive pronoun. More examples follow.

pa janaren anxiēxa; PA PN.indef(everything) N.st(useful) 'All are useful.' (referring to a set or class of things)

pa jannarien anxiēxa; PA PN.indef.ds(everything) N.st(useful) 'Everything is useful.' (referring to all things)

janaren and jannarien have animate equivalents. These are manaren (everyone in a group) and mannarien (everyone). For example:

ōrra ñi manaren rā jamāra; PAST NI PN.indef(everyone) LOC(to) N.sg(home) 'Everyone went home.' (all at once)

ōrra ñi mannarien rā jamāra; PAST NI PN.indef.ds(everyone) LOC(to) N.sg(home) 'Everyone went home.' (a few at a time, not all at once)

More examples:

ñamma jahūwa janaren sū jasūna mē; NI+3p.sg.agent N.sg(broken) PN.indef(everything) LOC(at) N.sg(room) MOD(in) 'She broke everything in the room.'

la þō jatāsa pa jannarien; LA PN(this) N.sg(market) PA PN.indef(everything) 'This market has everything.'

ñaxxa jāo ā mīþien mannarien; NI+3p.pl.agent PN(it) A N.anim.pl(others) PN.indef.anim.ds(everyone) 'Everyone else does it.'

tele janaren mo lerōña; SE.past+1p.sg.goal PN.indef(everything) GOAL N.poss(1p.eyes) 'I saw everything.' (that there was to see)

sema jannarien mo λi rōān mērja sarōña; SE+3p.sg.goal PN.indef.ds(everything) GOAL Pr.Name Rōān N.anim.sg(deity) N.poss(3p.eyes) The goddess Rōān sees everything.

Another use for the forms janaren and manaren is in superlatives. The best student would be mawālanen nā ñe manaren not mawālanen nā ñe mannarien. See ñe.

Additionally, there are regular and distributive forms for 'always'. These are ilnaren and ilnarien. Again, the first form refers to a all of a defined block of time, while the second refers to various distinct units of time. For example:

ilnarien ñalla jawāci japōññi sū āke jajēla; PN.indef.ds(always) NI+1p.sg.agent N.pl(mushrooms) N.pl(found) LOC(at) PN(that) N.sg(forest) 'I always find mushrooms in that forest.'

rehelre ancāna ilnaren; SE.fut.cert+1p.sg.src+2p.sg.goal N.st(love) PN.indef(always) 'I will always love you.'

Other 'all' words only occur in the distributive. These are honnarien (all kinds, all kinds of ways), sūnnarien (all places, everywhere), rūnnarien (from all places), and rānnarien (to all places). Examples:

la þō jatāsa pa honnarien; LA PN(this) N.sg(market) PA PN.indef(all kinds) 'This market has every kind of thing.'

la anlūāni antarūni sūnnarien; LA N.co(stars) N.co(visible) PN.indef(everywhere) 'The stars are visible everywhere.'

ñi le rānnarien lā NI PN.1p PN.indef(everywhere) EMPH 'I went everywhere!'

In addition to the 'all' forms, both regular and distributive, there are also negative forms, like jawae (nothing). The other negative forms are mawae (nobody), ilwae (never), howae (no kind, no manner), sūwae (nowhere), rūwae (from nowhere), rāwae (to nowhere), and tōwae (no reason). For example:

āl pa sāim jawae; ASP(now) PA PN(3p.pc) PN.indef(nothing) 'They now have nothing.'

pa mawae antēla jāttēna; PA PN.indef.anim(nobody) N.st(knowledge) N.sg(answer) 'Nobody knows the answer.'

ñi le ilwae rā lānōraen; NI PN(1p) PN.indef(never) LOC(to) Lānōraen 'I have never been to Lānōraen.'

In addition to the 'all' and 'none' forms, there is a series of nahan forms. These are used in most places that 'any-something' is used. For example:

cēja ñalla jahūwa janahan; CAN NI+1p.sg.agent N.sg(break) PN.indef(anything) 'I can break anything.'

tere janahan mo rirōña kēñ; SE.past+2p.sg.goal PN.indef(anything) GOAL N.poss(2p.eyes) INTERR 'Did you see anything/something?'

te riēn mo manahan sarōña kēñ; SE.past PN(2p.sg) GOAL PN.indef.anim(anyone) N.poss(3p.eyes) INTERR 'Did anyone/someone see you?'

ilnahan ñi riēn malāsa rā le cī; PN.indef(anytime) NI PN(2p.sg) N.anim.sg(visitor) LOC(to) PN(1p) COMM 'Come visit me anytime.'

honahan ñalla jāo rēha; PN.indef(somehow) NI+1p.sg.agent PN(it) FUT.cert 'I'll do it somehow.'

hēja ñi ñēim rānahan cī; FUT.obl NI PN(1p.pc.incl) PN.indef(to anywhere) COMM 'Let's go somewhere/anywhere.'

hēja ñi liēr rā jīþa sūnahan cī; FUT.obl NI PN(1p.incl.dual) LOC(to) N.sg(other) PN.indef(anywhere) COMM 'Let's go somewhere/anywhere else.'

tōwae and the interrogative pronoun tōkēñ (why) are the only two tō- forms. They are related to the conjunction tō.

Interrogative Pronouns

A series of interrogative pronouns parallels that of the indefinite pronouns. These are affixed to the mood marker kēñ, as in jakēñ (what), makēñ (who), ilkēñ (when), hokēñ (what manner), sūkēñ (where), rūkēñ (from where), rākēñ (to where), and tōkēñ (why). Since the mood marker always appears at the end of the sentence, so do the interrogative pronouns. See also kēñ.

temre xō ke makēñ; SE.past+3p.sg.src+2p.sg.goal PN(that) SRC PN.interr(who) 'Who gave you that?'

la xō jakēñ; LA PN(that) PN.interr(what) 'What is that?'

ñi riēn rākēñ; NI PN(2p.sg) PN.interr(to where) Where are you going?

rēha ñi liēr rā āke ilkēñ; FUT.cert NI PN(2p.dual) LOC(to) PN(there) PN.interr(when) 'When will we go there?'

In summary, the indefinite and interrogative pronouns are laid out in the following table:

	-naren	-nnarien	-wae	-nahan	interrogative
thing	janaren	jannarien	jawae	janahan	jakēñ
person	manaren	mannarien	mawae	manahan	makēñ
time	ilnaren	ilnarien	ilwae	ilnahan	ilkēñ
manner/kind		honnarien	howae	honahan	hokēñ
place		sūnnarien	sūwae	sūnahan	sūkēñ
direction from		rūnnarien	rūnahan	rūwae	rūkēñ
direction to		rānnarien	rāwae	rānahan	rākēñ
reason			tōwae		tōkēñ